What Is Disinformation?

Disinformation refers to false information that is deliberately spread with the intent to deceive or mislead. Unlike misinformation, which can be shared unknowingly or without harmful intent, disinformation is created and disseminated with the purpose of manipulating public opinion, obscuring the truth, or achieving specific goals that benefit the disseminator at the expense of the truth. This can involve everything from political propaganda to harmful rumors intended to discredit individuals, organizations, or entire nations.

In today’s digital age, where information spreads rapidly through social media, blogs, and other online platforms, disinformation has become an increasingly pervasive issue. It often utilizes sophisticated techniques to enhance its believability, such as mimicking the style of credible news sources or using manipulated images and videos. The effects of disinformation are wide-ranging, impacting everything from democratic elections to public health and causing divisiveness and confusion in society.

Addressing disinformation is complex, requiring critical media literacy skills among the public to identify and scrutinize the credibility of sources and the information they provide. Libraries, educational institutions, and media organizations are crucial in educating the public about disinformation and promoting strategies to combat its spread. Understanding disinformation is essential for maintaining the integrity of societal discourse and ensuring informed decision-making in a democracy.

What Is Disinformation?

Disinformation is false or misleading information that is deliberately created and spread with the intention of deceiving or manipulating its audience. Unlike misinformation, which can be shared unknowingly without malicious intent, disinformation is purposeful and often designed to achieve specific goals, such as swaying public opinion, undermining trust in institutions, or advancing political or financial agendas. It is frequently disseminated through various channels, including social media, news outlets, and even word of mouth, leveraging the speed and reach of modern communication technologies. Disinformation often exploits human emotions like fear, anger, or sympathy to make it more believable and shareable, making it particularly effective in polarizing societies and creating confusion. Combatting disinformation requires critical thinking, media literacy, and collaborative efforts from individuals, educators, and institutions to ensure a more informed and resilient public.

Some Real-World Examples of Disinformation Campaigns

Disinformation campaigns have been a significant challenge in the modern information landscape, often orchestrated to manipulate public opinion, influence elections, or achieve political, social, or economic goals. Here are some real-world examples of notable disinformation campaigns:

1. Russian Interference in the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election: The Russian government was accused of conducting a large-scale disinformation campaign to influence the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Operatives from the Internet Research Agency (IRA), a Russian troll farm, created fake social media accounts and spread divisive content to exacerbate political and social divisions. The campaign included false news stories, memes, and targeted ads aimed at suppressing voter turnout and influencing public opinion.
2. COVID-19 Misinformation: During the COVID-19 pandemic, disinformation campaigns proliferated across the globe, spreading false claims about the virus’s origins, treatments, and vaccines. For instance, some campaigns falsely claimed that 5G technology caused COVID-19, leading to vandalism of 5G towers. Others spread vaccine misinformation, such as claims that vaccines contained microchips, which undermined public trust in vaccination efforts.
3. Chinese State-Sponsored Disinformation: China has been accused of engaging in disinformation campaigns to shape global narratives around sensitive issues. For example, during the Hong Kong protests in 2019, Chinese state-backed accounts spread false narratives portraying protestors as violent extremists. Similar tactics were used to deflect criticism of China’s handling of the COVID-19 outbreak.
4. Myanmar and the Rohingya Crisis: In Myanmar, disinformation campaigns played a significant role in inciting violence against the Rohingya Muslim minority. Government-affiliated groups and individuals spread false narratives on Facebook, accusing the Rohingya of terrorism and portraying them as a threat to national security. This disinformation fueled public support for military crackdowns and contributed to widespread human rights abuses.
5. “Pizzagate” Conspiracy Theory: In 2016, a false conspiracy theory known as “Pizzagate” claimed that a Washington, D.C., pizzeria was the site of a child trafficking ring involving prominent political figures. The disinformation was spread through social media and led to real-world consequences, including an armed individual entering the restaurant to investigate the false claims.
6. Brexit Referendum Campaign: During the Brexit referendum in 2016, disinformation campaigns targeted UK citizens with misleading advertisements and social media posts. False claims, such as the assertion that leaving the European Union would redirect £350 million per week to the National Health Service (NHS), were widely circulated and contributed to shaping public opinion on the vote.
7. Anti-Vaccine Disinformation: Anti-vaccine campaigns have been a long-standing example of disinformation, often fueled by false claims linking vaccines to autism or other health issues. For instance, the fraudulent study by Andrew Wakefield, which falsely claimed a link between the MMR vaccine and autism, became a cornerstone for vaccine disinformation and continues to influence vaccine hesitancy worldwide.
8. Deepfake Videos: Advances in deepfake technology have been used in disinformation campaigns to create realistic but false videos of public figures. For example, deepfake videos of political leaders making inflammatory statements have been used to undermine trust and create confusion during elections or international conflicts.
9. Cambridge Analytica Scandal: Cambridge Analytica, a political consulting firm, was involved in disinformation campaigns by harvesting data from millions of Facebook users without their consent. The data was used to create highly targeted political advertisements and fake news to influence elections, including the 2016 U.S. presidential election and the Brexit referendum.
10. Operation INFEKTION: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union launched a disinformation campaign known as “Operation INFEKTION,” which falsely claimed that the U.S. government created the HIV/AIDS virus as a biological weapon. The campaign spread through fabricated articles and forged documents, fueling global conspiracy theories about the disease’s origins.

Disinformation campaigns exploit vulnerabilities in information ecosystems to manipulate public perception and achieve strategic goals. Understanding these examples highlights the importance of media literacy, critical thinking, and collaborative global efforts to combat the spread of disinformation and protect democratic processes and societal trust.

How is disinformation intentionally created and spread?

Disinformation is intentionally created through a deliberate process of fabrication or manipulation aimed at deceiving and influencing its audience. The creators of disinformation often identify specific targets—such as demographic groups or ideological communities—and craft narratives designed to exploit their beliefs, fears, or biases. By blending elements of truth with falsehoods, they make the disinformation more believable and harder to detect. Emotional appeals play a significant role, as sensationalism, fear, or anger can provoke stronger reactions and encourage sharing, amplifying the spread of disinformation.

The dissemination of disinformation is typically strategic, leveraging digital platforms and psychological tactics to maximize its impact. Social media platforms are particularly effective for spreading false information quickly, thanks to algorithms that prioritize engagement over accuracy. Tactics like astroturfing, which involves creating fake grassroots movements and using bot networks to amplify messages, make disinformation appear more credible and widely accepted. Targeted advertising is another common tool, where disinformation is tailored to specific audiences based on their online behavior and preferences.

Disinformation campaigns also exploit social and psychological dynamics, such as confirmation bias and the echo chambers created by algorithms. These factors make individuals more likely to accept and share information that aligns with their existing beliefs, even if it is false. The objectives behind disinformation vary, ranging from political manipulation and social division to financial gain and reputational damage.

What Motives Typically Drive Individuals or Groups to Create Disinformation?

Disinformation is often created and spread by individuals, groups, or organizations with specific motives. These motives can vary widely, ranging from political and economic goals to social and personal agendas. Understanding these motivations is key to addressing the root causes of disinformation and mitigating its impact. Below are the most common motives behind the creation and dissemination of disinformation:

1. Political Manipulation: One of the most common motives for creating disinformation is to influence political outcomes. Governments, political parties, and interest groups often engage in disinformation campaigns to sway public opinion, secure electoral victories, or undermine political opponents. For example, during elections, disinformation may target specific candidates or parties with false claims to discredit them or shift voter sentiment. In some cases, foreign actors use disinformation to destabilize governments and create political unrest, as seen in allegations of foreign interference in elections through social media disinformation campaigns.
2. Social Division and Polarization: Disinformation is frequently employed to exacerbate societal divisions and fuel polarization. Topics such as race, religion, immigration, and gender equality are often targeted because they evoke strong emotional reactions. By amplifying existing tensions and spreading false narratives, disinformation_creators aim to weaken social cohesion and sow discord within communities. For instance, divisive narratives during protests or social movements can escalate tensions and reduce the likelihood of constructive dialogue.
3. Economic Incentives: Financial gain is another significant driver of disinformation. False information designed as clickbait—sensational headlines or fabricated stories—attracts online traffic and generates advertising revenue for the creators. Additionally, disinformation_is used in financial markets to manipulate stock prices or damage competitors. Businesses may spread false claims about rival companies or products to gain a competitive edge or discredit competitors. This motive highlights the lucrative opportunities that disinformation can create for those willing to exploit public trust.
4. Propaganda and Ideological Agendas: Governments and organizations often use disinformation_as a tool for propaganda to shape public opinion and advance ideological goals. In authoritarian regimes, disinformation_is commonly deployed to suppress dissent, discredit opposition voices, and maintain control over the narrative. By promoting false narratives, these regimes can reinforce their legitimacy and deflect criticism. Similarly, extremist groups use disinformation to recruit followers and justify their actions, leveraging emotionally charged and manipulative messaging.
5. Personal Gain or Malice: Disinformation_is sometimes created for personal reasons, driven by motives such as revenge, jealousy, or the desire for attention. Individuals may spread false information to tarnish someone’s reputation, settle personal scores, or cause emotional harm. In other cases, creators of disinformation seek social validation or notoriety, particularly in the age of social media, where sensational content can quickly garner likes, shares, and comments.
6. Religious or Cultural Motivations: Religious and cultural ideologies are powerful drivers of_disinformation. False claims may be spread to promote or discredit specific beliefs, often to gain followers or challenge rival ideologies. Cultural superiority narratives or attempts to stigmatize certain groups are common tactics in such campaigns. These motives often exploit deeply held values, making the disinformation more persuasive and harder to refute.
7. Entertainment or Satire: Not all disinformation_is created with harmful intent. Some of it originates as satire or parody but is misconstrued as factual content. Satirical articles, memes, or videos designed to entertain can unintentionally contribute to the spread of_disinformation when taken out of context or consumed by audiences unfamiliar with the creator’s intent. While often less harmful, this type of disinformation can still mislead and create confusion.
8. Strategic and Psychological Warfare: Disinformation is a common tool in strategic warfare, particularly in international conflicts. State and non-state actors use false information to mislead adversaries, undermine morale, and gain strategic advantages. For instance, disinformation_about military capabilities or activities can create confusion and delay responses. Such tactics are integral to psychological and information warfare, where manipulating perceptions is as critical as physical actions.

The motives driving the creation of disinformation_are as diverse as they are pervasive, ranging from political manipulation and financial gain to personal vendettas and ideological agendas. These motives often exploit human emotions, biases, and the dynamics of digital platforms to achieve their goals, making disinformation a powerful and dangerous tool. Combating disinformation_requires a deep understanding of these motives, along with coordinated efforts from governments, media organizations, and individuals to disrupt its creation and spread. By addressing the root causes and educating the public, society can better protect itself against the growing threat of disinformation.

How can disinformation impact political elections and democratic processes?

Disinformation can severely impact political elections and democratic processes by distorting the flow of accurate information necessary for informed decision-making. During elections, disinformation campaigns often manipulate voter perceptions by spreading false narratives about candidates, policies, or voting procedures. These falsehoods can influence voters’ choices, erode trust in electoral outcomes, or even suppress voter turnout by providing misleading information about polling locations or voting requirements. Additionally, disinformation exploits emotional and divisive issues, such as race or immigration, to polarize public opinion, intensifying divisions within the electorate and reducing opportunities for consensus or productive dialogue.

Disinformation also undermines trust in democratic institutions by promoting false claims about election integrity, such as voter fraud or tampering, which can delegitimize outcomes and create long-term skepticism about the electoral process. Foreign actors often use disinformation to interfere in elections, aiming to destabilize governments and sow discord within societies. Moreover, disinformation clutters the information ecosystem with conflicting or fabricated narratives, creating confusion and making it difficult for voters to discern truth from falsehood. This environment can lead to voter apathy, as individuals may feel disillusioned and disengaged from participating in the democratic process.

Ultimately, disinformation jeopardizes the principles of free and fair elections by eroding public trust and weakening the institutions that uphold democracy. Addressing these challenges requires media literacy education, stricter regulations for digital platforms, and collaborative efforts between governments and civil society to protect the integrity of elections and democratic governance.

What role do social media platforms play in the amplification of disinformation?

Social media platforms significantly amplify disinformation by leveraging their unique characteristics of rapid information dissemination, algorithm-driven content prioritization, and vast user networks. The algorithms that govern platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are designed to maximize user engagement by promoting content that is most likely to capture attention, often prioritizing sensational, emotionally charged, or polarizing posts. Disinformation, which frequently uses fear, outrage, or sensationalism to provoke reactions, fits perfectly into this model, making it more likely to be seen, shared, and spread widely. This amplification is further exacerbated by creating echo chambers and filter bubbles, where users are exposed primarily to information that aligns with their existing beliefs, reinforcing biases and reducing exposure to opposing viewpoints or corrective information.

The architecture of social media facilitates the rapid and frictionless sharing of content, allowing disinformation to spread at unprecedented speeds. Features like retweets, shares, and forwards require little to no verification from users, making it easy for false information to propagate unchecked. The anonymity provided by these platforms also fosters the use of fake accounts, bots, and troll farms, which systematically generate and amplify disinformation, giving it the appearance of widespread legitimacy and acceptance. Furthermore, disinformation campaigns often exploit social media’s targeting tools to reach specific demographics, tailoring content to exploit vulnerabilities and manipulate public opinion effectively.

While social media platforms have introduced measures such as fact-checking, content moderation, and labels for flagged posts, these efforts often lag behind the speed and scale at which disinformation spreads. The challenges of moderating vast volumes of content, coupled with concerns over censorship and free speech, complicate these interventions. As a result, social media platforms remain a powerful force in amplifying disinformation, shaping public perceptions, and influencing social and political discourse, making their role a critical focus in efforts to combat false information.

How Can Individuals Identify and Protect Themselves Against Disinformation?

Individuals can identify and protect themselves against disinformation_by cultivating critical thinking skills and adopting proactive information evaluation habits. A key step is to question the source and intent of the content they encounter. Reliable information often comes from credible sources with clear authorship and verifiable evidence, so checking the credentials of the author or the reputation of the publication is essential. Cross-referencing the information with multiple trusted outlets helps confirm its accuracy and reduces the risk of being misled. Recognizing emotional manipulation is equally important, as disinformation frequently relies on sensationalism or fear to provoke strong reactions that bypass rational scrutiny.

Utilizing tools and resources like fact-checking websites (e.g., Snopes, FactCheck.org) and reverse image search tools (e.g., Google Images, TinEye) can help verify claims and detect manipulated visuals. Awareness of social media algorithms is also critical, as these systems prioritize engagement over accuracy, often amplifying disinformation. Diversifying news sources and following credible experts can counteract the effects of echo chambers and ensure exposure to a broader range of perspectives.

Before sharing any content, individuals should take a moment to verify its authenticity, considering its potential impact on others. Recognizing common red flags, such as anonymous authors, lack of citations, or overly sensational language, can further aid in identifying false information. Education and media literacy play a vital role as well; attending workshops, using online resources, and staying informed about disinformation tactics enhance one’s ability to navigate the information landscape effectively. By adopting these strategies, individuals can protect themselves and contribute to reducing the spread of disinformation, fostering a more informed and resilient society.

The Psychological and Social Effects of Disinformation on Public Perception

The psychological and social effects of disinformation on public perception are profound, as it can manipulate emotions, distort beliefs, and disrupt societal cohesion. These effects stem from the intentional design of disinformation to exploit cognitive biases, sow division, and erode trust in institutions. Below are key ways disinformation impacts public perception psychologically and socially:

A. Psychological Effects of Disinformation on Public Perception:

Disinformation, the deliberate spread of false or misleading information, has a profound psychological impact on public perception. By exploiting cognitive biases, emotions, and the way individuals process information, disinformation can distort beliefs, manipulate behaviors, and erode critical thinking. Here are some of the key psychological effects:

1. Cognitive Overload and Confusion: The overwhelming volume of conflicting narratives in the disinformation ecosystem can lead to cognitive overload. When faced with a flood of contradictory information, individuals may struggle to determine what is true, leading to confusion and paralysis. This confusion can undermine confidence in decision-making and create a sense of helplessness in navigating the information landscape.
2. Reinforcement of Confirmation Bias: Disinformation often aligns with existing beliefs and biases, exploiting the human tendency to seek out and accept information that confirms preconceived notions. This reinforcement of confirmation bias strengthens ideological divides and reduces openness to alternative viewpoints. As a result, individuals may become more entrenched in their beliefs, even when those beliefs are based on falsehoods.
3. Emotional Manipulation: Disinformation is designed to provoke strong emotional reactions, such as fear, anger, or outrage, which can override rational thought and critical evaluation. Sensational headlines, provocative imagery, and emotionally charged language are commonly used to exploit these emotions, making individuals more likely to accept and share false information impulsively.
4. Erosion of Critical Thinking: Repeated exposure to disinformation can desensitize individuals to the importance of verifying facts and analyzing information critically. Over time, this can lead to “truth fatigue,” where people become apathetic or cynical about all information, viewing it as potentially false. This erosion of critical thinking undermines the ability to engage thoughtfully with complex issues.
5. Heightened Anxiety and Distrust: Disinformation, particularly in the context of crises like pandemics or elections, can exacerbate anxiety and foster distrust in credible sources. For example, false narratives about vaccine safety or election fraud can leave individuals feeling fearful and uncertain. This erosion of trust extends to institutions such as governments, media outlets, and scientific organizations, further destabilizing public confidence.
6. Polarization and Hostility: By amplifying divisive issues and creating echo chambers, disinformation fosters hostility toward opposing viewpoints. The psychological effect of feeling validated by disinformation that aligns with one’s beliefs can make individuals more resistant to dialogue or compromise. This contributes to heightened polarization and a fragmented society.
7. Desensitization to Falsehoods: When exposed to disinformation repeatedly, individuals may become desensitized to its presence, normalizing the acceptance of false or misleading information. This normalization reduces the urgency to verify information and weakens societal standards for truth and accountability.
8. Illusory Truth Effect: Disinformation_often exploits the illusory truth effect, where repeated exposure to false information makes it seem more credible over time. Even when individuals initially doubt a claim, repeated exposure can lead them to unconsciously accept it as true, influencing their beliefs and behaviors.

The psychological effects of disinformation on public perception are far-reaching, influencing how individuals process, believe, and act on information. By targeting cognitive biases, exploiting emotions, and overwhelming critical faculties, disinformation can distort public understanding and erode trust in credible sources. Addressing these effects requires a concerted effort to promote media literacy, encourage critical thinking, and foster resilience against manipulative tactics in the digital age.

B. Social Effects of Disinformation on Public Perception

Disinformation—deliberately false or misleading information—extends its impact beyond individual psychology to affect societal dynamics profoundly. By distorting shared understanding, disinformation can disrupt social cohesion, erode trust, and polarize communities. Here are some of the key social effects of disinformation on public perception:

1. Polarization and Division: Disinformation_often amplifies existing divisions within society by exploiting sensitive issues such as race, religion, politics, and immigration. Presenting exaggerated or false narratives deepens ideological divides and fosters hostility between groups. Social media algorithms further exacerbate this polarization by creating echo chambers, where individuals are exposed only to information that reinforces their existing beliefs, making meaningful dialogue and compromise more challenging.
2. Erosion of Trust in Institutions: Disinformation campaigns frequently target trusted institutions, such as governments, media outlets, and scientific organizations. False claims about election fraud, public health policies, or journalistic bias can erode public confidence in these institutions. When trust diminishes, it becomes harder for societies to address collective challenges, as people may disregard expert advice or view authoritative sources with skepticism.
3. Undermining Social Relationships: Disinformation_can strain personal and community relationships. Clashes over perceived truths often arise among friends, family members, and colleagues, especially when disinformation aligns with deeply held beliefs. These conflicts can fracture relationships and weaken social bonds, reducing interpersonal trust and solidarity.
4. Spread of Misguided Actions: Disinformation can lead to real-world consequences when individuals or groups act on false beliefs. For example, health-related disinformation, such as anti-vaccine propaganda, can undermine public health efforts and increase the spread of preventable diseases. Similarly, disinformation about political processes, such as false claims of election fraud, can incite protests or violence, destabilizing democratic systems.
5. Normalization of Falsehoods: The pervasive nature of disinformation can normalize the acceptance of false or misleading information within society. Over time, societal standards for truth and accuracy erode, making it harder to differentiate between fact and fiction. This normalization weakens accountability as people become desensitized to the consequences of spreading or consuming false information.
6. Mistrust and Alienation: Disinformation fosters a culture of mistrust, where individuals become suspicious not only of institutions but also of one another. This mistrust can lead to social alienation, as people withdraw from public discourse or isolate themselves within homogenous groups that share their views. Such fragmentation undermines the sense of a shared community and collective identity.
7. Destabilization of Democratic Processes: In democratic societies, disinformation undermines the public’s ability to make informed decisions. By distorting facts about policies, candidates, or voting procedures, disinformation can manipulate voter behavior and delegitimize election outcomes. This destabilization creates long-term challenges for governance and public trust in democratic systems.
8. Creation of Echo Chambers: Disinformation thrives in environments where people interact primarily with like-minded individuals. Echo chambers reinforce biases and filter out dissenting perspectives, narrowing public discourse and reducing exposure to diverse viewpoints. This segmentation of society into isolated groups further weakens social cohesion and amplifies division.

The social effects of disinformation on public perception are deeply disruptive, influencing how societies function and how individuals relate to one another. By polarizing communities, eroding trust in institutions, and weakening social relationships, disinformation poses a significant threat to social cohesion and democratic stability. Combating these effects requires collective action, including public education, digital platform regulation, and open, fact-based dialogue to rebuild trust and unity within societies.

How Does Disinformation Affect Trust in Media, Government, and Institutions?

Disinformation undermines trust in media, government, and institutions by creating an environment of doubt and skepticism, where the lines between credible information and falsehoods are intentionally blurred. In the media, disinformation campaigns frequently accuse reputable outlets of bias or spreading “fake news,” causing individuals to question the legitimacy of even well-established sources. This erosion of trust pushes people toward alternative, often less reliable platforms, where disinformation thrives. Similarly, in the realm of governance, false narratives about corruption, inefficiency, or election fraud can delegitimize governments and weaken public confidence in democratic systems. When disinformation casts doubt on the fairness of elections or the competence of policymakers, it undermines public engagement and reduces faith in democratic processes.

Institutions such as scientific organizations, healthcare systems, and educational entities are not immune to these effects. Disinformation targeting these institutions often challenges their credibility by promoting conspiracy theories or questioning expert consensus. For instance, false claims about vaccines or public health measures can lead to widespread mistrust in healthcare systems, jeopardizing public safety. Over time, repeated exposure to disinformation fosters a generalized skepticism, making individuals less likely to trust any authority, even those with proven integrity. This atmosphere of distrust not only weakens the ability of media, governments, and institutions to perform their roles effectively but also exacerbates societal divisions, further eroding social cohesion and stability. Addressing this issue requires collective efforts to restore trust through transparency, accountability, and education.

What Role Do State-Sponsored Actors Play in the Spread of Disinformation Globally?

State-sponsored actors are key players in the global spread of disinformation, using it as a strategic tool to influence public opinion, destabilize rivals, and achieve geopolitical objectives. These actors often target democratic processes, such as elections, by spreading false narratives about candidates, policies, or electoral integrity to manipulate outcomes and erode trust in democratic institutions. By amplifying societal divisions and exploiting sensitive issues like race, religion, or immigration, they create polarization and weaken the social cohesion of rival nations. Social media platforms serve as the primary battleground for these campaigns, where state-sponsored actors deploy bots, fake accounts, and troll farms to flood platforms with coordinated disinformation, making false narratives appear credible and widely supported.

In addition to undermining rivals, state-sponsored disinformation often serves domestic and international propaganda goals. These campaigns promote favorable narratives about the sponsoring state while discrediting opposing views or foreign policies. For example, during conflicts, disinformation is used to obscure military actions, frame adversaries as aggressors, and shape global perceptions. Moreover, these actors capitalize on global crises, such as pandemics or economic instability, to spread false information that fosters fear, uncertainty, and mistrust in governments or international organizations. By doing so, they undermine global cooperation and exacerbate the challenges facing affected nations.

The role of state-sponsored actors in disinformation is not limited to politics; they also target economic stability by spreading falsehoods about markets or industries to create volatility and weaken rivals’ economies. These efforts are often part of a broader strategy to disrupt international alliances, such as NATO or the European Union, by sowing mistrust and weakening unity among member states. Ultimately, state-sponsored disinformation campaigns are a powerful tool in modern information warfare, designed to manipulate perceptions, destabilize societies, and advance strategic agendas. Combating their influence requires coordinated global efforts, improved digital platform accountability, and public education to build resilience against their tactics.