Sources of Information

Introduction- Literature of a Subject is its Foundation. It represents a record of the achievements of the human race. Literature is diverse, Complex, and multilingual. It is becoming more and more interdisciplinary. It is growing at a fast pace. In the sciences, it almost doubles every few years, according to some studies. In social sciences, it doubles every eight to twelve years. Literature serves the informational needs of various kinds of Users. It forms the source of Information. Traditionally Speaking, information Sources would include primarily books, periodicals, and newspapers. However, the number and forms of sources are continuously increasing. In addition, unpublished sources are becoming increasingly important to scholars. Occasions will arise, especially in a special library of the University library, when a user requires information without a precondition about the form of the document. In such a situation, the finding of information matters, not the sources of information.

1.1 What is the meaning of Information sources?

Information sources refer to the origins or channels from which individuals obtain data, facts, knowledge, or insights. These sources can be diverse and encompass various mediums and formats. Information sources are critical in shaping our understanding of the world, contributing to the foundation of knowledge and decision-making processes. Traditionally, sources of information include books, journals, newspapers, and other print media. However, with the advent of the digital age, information sources have expanded to include online platforms, databases, social media, audiovisual content, and more.

The reliability and credibility of information often depend on the nature of its source. Academic and peer-reviewed journals, for example, are generally considered more reliable in scholarly contexts, while information from social media may require careful verification due to varying degrees of accuracy. Unpublished sources, such as personal communications or internal reports, also contribute to the pool of information available.

Understanding information sources is crucial for individuals to navigate the vast sea of data and make informed judgments. Critical evaluation of sources’ credibility, bias, and relevance is essential in ensuring that the information obtained is trustworthy. As the information landscape evolves, it is important to stay mindful of the diverse sources and their implications for the accuracy and reliability of the information we encounter and use.

1.2 What are the traditional sources of information, and how have they evolved with the advent of technology?

Information has long been the lifeblood of human progress, and throughout history, traditional sources have served as pillars of knowledge dissemination. However, with the advent of technology, these sources have undergone a transformative evolution, reshaping how we access and interact with information. Here are some key traditional sources and how they have evolved with technological advancements:

1. Books: Traditionally, books were tangible objects, carrying the weight of knowledge within their pages. Technological advancements have expanded the format of books to include digital versions, audiobooks, and e-readers. E-books, in particular, have gained popularity for their portability and accessibility. Readers can now carry an entire library on a single device, enabling them to access a vast array of literature from classic novels to contemporary research papers. Audiobooks have transformed the reading experience by providing an alternative for those who prefer listening over traditional reading. This evolution in book formats has not only made literature more accessible but has also diversified the ways people engage with written content.
2. Journals and Magazines: Academic journals and magazines were historically confined to print, limiting their reach to specific geographic areas or academic institutions. The digital revolution has propelled these sources onto online platforms, making scholarly articles and periodicals accessible globally. Online databases and digital subscriptions have broken down barriers, allowing researchers, students, and enthusiasts to instantly access the latest research and articles from around the world. This has facilitated a more rapid exchange of ideas and has accelerated the pace of academic discourse. Additionally, digitizing these sources has enhanced searchability and made it easier to cross-reference information, thereby enriching the research process.
3. Newspapers: Print newspapers were once the primary source of daily news. However, the internet has revolutionized the news landscape. Online news platforms provide real-time updates, multimedia content, and interactive features. Social media platforms amplify the reach of news stories, turning consumers into contributors through comments, shares, and discussions. The immediacy and accessibility of online news have transformed how people stay informed, enabling them to engage with current events in more dynamic and participatory ways. However, this digital shift has also introduced challenges, such as the need for media literacy to navigate online news sources’ vast and sometimes unreliable landscape.
4. Encyclopedias: Traditional encyclopedias were static volumes of compiled knowledge, updated periodically. The advent of Wikipedia and other collaborative online platforms has transformed this model into a dynamic and living source of information. Wikipedia allows individuals worldwide to contribute, edit, and update content in real time. This collaborative approach has expanded the breadth and depth of information available, reflecting a collective and evolving understanding of various subjects. However, it also introduces challenges related to accuracy and reliability, emphasizing the importance of critical evaluation when using collaborative online encyclopedias.
5. Libraries: Physical libraries were once central hubs for accessing information, requiring individuals to be close to educational institutions or public libraries. The digital age has revolutionized this model with the advent of online libraries and databases. These platforms provide a vast collection of resources that can be accessed remotely, reducing the constraints of physical location. The digitization of books, articles, and archival materials has democratized access to information, allowing individuals worldwide to engage in self-directed learning and research. The convenience of online libraries has also facilitated collaboration among researchers and academics, transcending geographical boundaries.
6. Television and Radio: Traditional broadcast media, including television and radio, provided a centralized source of information and entertainment. The digital age has witnessed the rise of podcasts, webinars, and online video platforms. Podcasts, in particular, offer diverse content on virtually every topic imaginable, catering to niche interests and preferences. The on-demand nature of these platforms allows users to consume content at their convenience, transforming the passive consumption model of traditional broadcast media into an interactive and personalized experience. This shift has empowered individuals to curate their information diet, choosing content that aligns with their interests and learning preferences.
7. Personal Communication: Face-to-face interactions and written letters were the cornerstones of personal communication. The digital age has introduced many communication channels, including email, instant messaging, and social media platforms. These technologies have revolutionized how individuals connect, enabling real-time conversations and instant information sharing. The global reach of digital communication platforms has brought people closer, transcending geographical barriers. However, it has also raised concerns about the quality of interpersonal relationships in a digitally mediated world, prompting discussions about the balance between virtual and face-to-face interactions.
8. Public Records: Accessing official documents and government records traditionally required physical visits to archives or public offices. The digitization of public records has streamlined this process, making information more accessible. Online databases and government websites now offer a wealth of information, ranging from historical records to contemporary datasets. This shift toward digital accessibility has improved transparency, allowing individuals to scrutinize and verify official information. However, it also raises concerns about data privacy and security, emphasizing the need for robust measures to protect sensitive information in the digital realm.

The evolution of traditional sources of information with the advent of technology has brought about significant changes in how we access, consume, and contribute to knowledge. While these advancements have made information more accessible and interactive, they also present challenges related to information quality, reliability, and the need for digital literacy. Navigating this dynamic landscape requires individuals to adapt to new modes of information consumption while critically evaluating sources to ensure the responsible and informed use of knowledge in the digital age.

1.3 Types of information sources:

Different epistemologies have different views regarding the importance of different kinds of information sources. Empiricism regards sense data as the ultimate information source, while other epistemologies have different views (Kragh 1989)(4. The various types of information sources can be divided into two broad categories.

1.3.1: Documentary Sources.

1.3.2 Non-Documentary Sources.

1.3.1. Documentary Sources of Information:

Documentary sources of information encompass written, recorded, or otherwise documented materials that serve as valuable resources for understanding and interpreting various aspects of human knowledge. These sources include books, journals, newspapers, government reports, manuscripts, audiovisual recordings, and more. Documentaries, films, and online platforms also contribute to this category. These materials serve as repositories of historical events, cultural practices, scientific advancements, and various subjects. Researchers, historians, and scholars often rely on documentary sources to access primary or secondary information, construct narratives, and deepen their understanding of different fields. Whether exploring the pages of a historical manuscript, analyzing data from a scientific report, or watching a documentary film, documentary sources play a pivotal role in preserving, disseminating, and conveying information across various domains. As technology continues to evolve, digital platforms and online archives further contribute to the accessibility and diversity of documentary sources, shaping the way information is documented, shared, and accessed in contemporary society.

These are generally published or recorded documents of knowledge. Documentary sources may be as under:-

1.3.1.1 Primary Sources of Information:

 Primary sources of information are the first published records of original research and development or description of new applications or new interpretations of an old theme or idea. There are original documents representing unfiltered original ideas.

These constitute the latest available information. A researcher producing new information can make it available to the particular community through primary sources. Often, it may be the only source of information in existence. Primary sources are unorganized sources, which are rather difficult to use by them; secondary sources help us to use these. These are important sources of information. A subject becomes a discipline in its own right when independent primary sources begin to be produced in that area. The rate of growth of a discipline to a large extent, depends upon the amount of literature being produced in the form of primary sources reporting development in the concerned field.

The primary source is a term used in several disciplines to describe source material closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied.

In historiography, a primary source (also called original source) is an artifact, a document, a recording, or other information source created at the time under study. If created by a human source, then a source with direct personal knowledge of the described events.

It serves as a source of information about the topic. Similar definitions are used in Library Science and other areas of scholarship.

In journalism, a primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation or a document created by such a person. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on, or build upon primary sources. However the distinction is not a sharp one. “Primary and secondary are relative terms, with sources judged primary or secondary according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied.” (Kragh 1989)

For Example-:

➢ Books

➢ Periodicals

➢ Conference Papers

➢ Research Monographs

➢ Research Reports

➢ Patents

➢ Standards

➢ Thesis

➢ Industrial and trade literature

➢ Manuscripts

➢ Unpublished Sources:-

> memorandum

> Laboratory notebooks

> Diaries

> Company

> Files

> Portraits

> State Papers

➢ Web sites
➢ Video Recordings

> Speeches

> Works of Art, architecture,

> literature and music.

1.3.1.2 Secondary Sources of Information:

Secondary sources of information refer to materials that provide interpretations, analyses, or evaluations of primary sources. These sources are created after an event or a period has passed, offering a reflective or synthesized perspective on historical events, scientific discoveries, or various topics. Unlike primary sources that offer firsthand evidence, secondary sources include books, journal articles, documentaries, and other forms of media that analyze and interpret primary source materials. These materials contribute to the broader understanding of a subject by providing context, analysis, and scholarly interpretations. Secondary sources are valuable in academic research and historical inquiry as they offer perspectives, critiques, and reflections that help shape a more comprehensive understanding of events or phenomena. Researchers often rely on primary and secondary sources to build a well-rounded and nuanced interpretation of a particular subject.

Types of Secondary Sources of Information: 

“Bonn” has divided the secondary sources into three types, which are below

1. Index Type:

(a) Index

(b) Bibliography

(c) Indexing periodicals

(d) Abstracting Periodicals

2. Survey Type:

(a) Review

(b) Treatise

(c)Monograph

3. Reference Type:

(a) Encyclopedia

(b) Dictionary

(c)Hand book, Manual

(d) Critical Tables

Important ones are discussed below:-

1. Periodicals: Periodicals, often called journals or magazines, are regularly recurring publications, such as weekly, monthly, or quarterly. These publications serve as valuable sources of information across various disciplines, providing readers with current and in-depth coverage of specific topics. Periodicals encompass various subjects, including academic research, news, entertainment, and specialized interests. Academic journals publish peer-reviewed articles that contribute to advancing knowledge within specific fields. At the same time, magazines often offer a mix of articles, features, and visuals to cater to a broader readership. The periodic nature of these publications ensures that readers stay informed about the latest developments, research findings, and trends in their areas of interest, making periodicals an essential component of the dynamic and ever-evolving landscape of information dissemination.

2. Indexes: An index, in the context of information organization, is a systematic and alphabetical list or guide that serves as a reference to locate specific terms, topics, or concepts within a larger body of content. Indexing is common in books, academic journals, databases, and other informational resources. It allows users to quickly locate relevant information without reading the entire document. In a book, for example, an index is typically found at the end and contains entries with page numbers, directing readers to the pages where particular keywords or subjects are discussed. In digital contexts, indexes are also crucial components of search engines, helping users retrieve relevant information efficiently. Whether in print or digital formats, an index enhances the accessibility of information, providing a valuable tool for researchers, students, and readers seeking specific content within a larger body of text.

3. Bibliographies: A bibliography is a comprehensive and systematic list of sources, references, or works cited in a particular document or scholarly work. It is a valuable tool for researchers, students, and readers to identify and access the materials consulted or referenced by the author. Bibliographies can take various forms, including annotated bibliographies that provide summaries or evaluations of each source. They are commonly found at the end of academic papers, articles, books, and research projects, presenting a transparent record of the sources used to create the work. Beyond being a citation practice, bibliographies allow readers to delve deeper into the subject matter, explore related works, and verify the credibility and diversity of the sources employed in the research process. As a fundamental aspect of academic writing, bibliographies contribute to the research endeavor’s transparency, accountability, and integrity by acknowledging other authors’ intellectual debts and contributions.

4. Indexing Periodicals: Indexing periodicals involves systematically organizing and categorizing information contained within recurring publications, such as journals and magazines. This process aims to create a structured and searchable database of the content, making it easier for researchers, scholars, and readers to locate specific topics, articles, or authors. In periodicals, indexing often includes creating an alphabetical list of terms or subjects along with references to the relevant pages or issues where they appear. Developing comprehensive indexes enhances the accessibility and usability of periodicals, allowing users to navigate vast amounts of information efficiently. Indexing is particularly crucial in academic and research contexts, where scholars rely on these tools to identify relevant literature and stay abreast of developments in their respective fields. Digital advancements have further facilitated the creation of online indexes, making it possible to search and retrieve information from periodicals with incredible speed and precision.

5. Abstracting Periodicals: Abstracting periodicals involves the creation of concise and informative summaries, known as abstracts, for individual articles or papers published within recurring journals or magazines. The abstract provides a condensed overview of the main objectives, methods, results, and conclusions of the original work. This process is instrumental in distilling the essential content of scholarly articles, making it easier for researchers, academics, and readers to quickly grasp the key insights without delving into the full text. Abstracts are crucial in academic databases, serving as entry points for users seeking relevant literature on specific topics. In addition to aiding in information retrieval, abstracting contributes to disseminating knowledge by providing a snapshot of research findings. Researchers often rely on abstracts to decide whether an article aligns with their interests and warrants further exploration.

6. Reviews (Survey Type): Reviews in the context of a survey type refer to comprehensive and evaluative summaries of existing literature or research within a specific field or topic. In this survey-type review, researchers systematically analyze and synthesize information from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive overview of knowledge in a particular area. These reviews go beyond mere summarization by critically assessing the quality, methodologies, and findings of the studies included. The goal is to offer readers a deeper understanding of the current state of research, identify gaps or inconsistencies in the existing literature, and provide insights for future investigations. Survey-type reviews are common in academic disciplines where a broad understanding of the existing body of knowledge is essential for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. These reviews advance scholarly dialogue by presenting a holistic view of research developments, offering a foundation for informed decision-making, and guiding future research directions within a specific domain.

7. Reference Books (also considered tertiary): Reference books, often categorized as tertiary sources, are distinctive in providing quick and concise information across a wide range of subjects. These books are designed to be consulted for specific facts, definitions, or brief overviews rather than read cover to cover. Encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, atlases, and handbooks are common examples of reference books. Encyclopedias offer comprehensive information on various topics, often arranged alphabetically, while dictionaries provide definitions and explanations of words. Almanacs present statistical and calendar information, atlases provide maps and geographical details, and handbooks offer practical guidance on specific subjects. Reference books are valuable tools for students, researchers, and general readers seeking immediate and reliable information. They are often found in libraries and are indispensable for answering quick queries, gaining an overview of a topic, or verifying facts. The structured and condensed nature of reference books makes them an essential component of the information landscape, complementing more in-depth sources in research and exploration.

(8) Text Books (other than fiction and autobiography): Textbooks are educational resources designed to support formal learning in academic settings. These books are written to provide comprehensive coverage of a particular subject or course, offering a structured and systematic presentation of information. Textbooks are commonly used in schools, colleges, and universities as primary instructional materials for students. They follow a logical progression of concepts, often starting with foundational principles and gradually advancing to more complex topics. Textbooks typically include exercises, examples, and illustrations to reinforce learning and engage students in active comprehension. Authored by subject matter experts, textbooks aim to deliver accurate, authoritative, and pedagogically sound content tailored to the curriculum. As foundational resources, textbooks serve as a roadmap for both students and educators, guiding the teaching and learning process throughout an academic term or course. While digital resources and online learning platforms have become more prevalent, textbooks remain essential in providing a tangible and structured foundation for acquiring knowledge in diverse academic disciplines.

1.3.1.3 Tertiary Sources of Information:

Tertiary sources of information are compilation and summary resources that aggregate information from primary and secondary sources. These sources distill complex data and knowledge into easily digestible formats, often in encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, or almanacs. Tertiary sources serve as reference materials that provide overviews, summaries, and background information on various topics. Unlike primary and secondary sources, which directly engage with original data or interpretive analyses, tertiary sources focus on organizing and presenting information in a concise and accessible manner. They are particularly useful for individuals seeking introductory or general knowledge on a subject. They offer a convenient starting point before delving into more specialized or in-depth research using primary and secondary sources. Examples of tertiary sources include general encyclopedias, subject-specific encyclopedias, and reference books that provide brief explanations, definitions, and summaries on various topics.

Examples:

1. Bibliography of Bibliographies: A “Bibliography of Bibliographies” is a meta-level bibliographic resource that compiles references to other bibliographies. It provides a comprehensive guide to existing bibliographic works, providing researchers, librarians, and scholars with a systematic overview of sources available on a particular subject or within a specific field. This type of bibliography is particularly valuable for those looking to explore in-depth research on a topic or understand the scope of available literature within a discipline.

A bibliography of bibliographies may include entries that cover a range of formats, such as books, articles, and online resources. It can be organized by subject, author, period, or other relevant criteria. The goal is to help users navigate and identify key resources, ultimately aiding their research endeavors. Researchers often turn to bibliographies of bibliographies when conducting literature reviews, embarking on scholarly projects, or seeking a comprehensive understanding of the existing literature within a particular domain.

2. Directories: Directories are compilations of information listing individuals, organizations, businesses, or institutions along with their contact details and other relevant data. They serve as valuable resources for finding addresses, phone numbers, and other contact information for specific people or entities. Directories can be general or specialized, focusing on specific professions, industries, regions, or demographics. Examples include business directories, telephone directories, and professional directories.

3. Yearbooks: Yearbooks, on the other hand, are annual publications that summarize and highlight key events, developments, and statistics for a particular year. They often include information about notable individuals, organizations, sports, cultural events, and other significant happenings. Yearbooks serve as historical records, capturing the essence of a specific period. They can cover various topics, including education, sports, politics, and entertainment. Academic institutions, governments, and various organizations often publish yearbooks to document the noteworthy occurrences of a given year.

3. Guide to Literature: A “Guide to Literature” is an invaluable compass for individuals navigating the expansive realm of scholarly and professional knowledge within a specific field. This reference work is designed to assist researchers, students, and scholars identify, access, and comprehend the key literature relevant to their study area. Offering a curated roadmap, a Guide to Literature typically includes bibliographies, recommended reading lists, critical reviews, and annotations that highlight seminal works, influential authors, and foundational studies. These guides help users understand the historical context, methodological approaches, and significant contributions within a discipline, facilitating a deeper engagement with the existing body of knowledge. Whether used for literature reviews, research projects, or academic exploration, a Guide to Literature is an essential tool that streamlines navigating and comprehending the vast literature landscape within a specific academic or professional domain.

4. List of research in progress: A “List of Research in Progress” typically refers to a compilation or catalog of ongoing research projects within a specific field or academic discipline. This list serves as a resource for scholars, researchers, and the academic community to stay informed about their peers’ current research endeavors and topics. It can be maintained by academic institutions, research organizations, or professional associations and may be available in various formats, such as online databases, publications, or research bulletins.

1.3.2 Non-documentary Sources of Information:

Non-documentary sources of information refer to data or knowledge not conveyed through written or recorded materials but derived from various experiential, observational, or tangible sources. These sources encompass various formats, providing valuable insights that may not be captured in traditional written documents. Non-documentary sources include oral histories, interviews, artifacts, physical objects, audiovisual recordings, sensory observations, and direct experiences. Non-documentary sources enrich our understanding of historical events, cultural practices, and social phenomena by offering a more immersive and contextual perspective. Unlike written or recorded documents, non-documentary sources often convey the lived experiences, emotions, and nuances that contribute to a holistic comprehension of a given subject. Researchers and historians frequently integrate non-documentary sources into their work to capture the multifaceted aspects of human endeavors, allowing for a more comprehensive and nuanced interpretation of the past and present.

Types: Non-documentary sources of information can be further categorized into formal and informal sources based on their structured or unstructured nature. Here are types of non-documentary sources in both categories:

1.3.2.1 Formal Non-documentary Sources:

Formal non-documentary sources of information refer to structured, organized, and institutionalized channels through which information is conveyed but does not necessarily rely on traditional written or recorded documents. These sources are characterized by their official and systematic nature. Examples of formal non-documentary sources include:

• Official Meetings and Proceedings: Minutes, transcripts, or summaries of formal meetings, conferences, and gatherings where discussions, decisions, and presentations occur.
• Speeches and Lectures: Formal presentations or speeches delivered by experts, scholars, or authorities in a particular field, often documented through audio or video recordings.
• Surveys and Questionnaires: Structured data collection tools used by institutions, governments, or research organizations to gather information from a sample population.
• Databases and Data Repositories: Structured data collections maintained by organizations, institutions, or research bodies, encompassing statistical information, research findings, or datasets.
• Official Statistics: Information published by government agencies or authoritative bodies, including demographic data, economic indicators, and social statistics.

These formal non-documentary sources are characterized by their organized and official nature, contributing to the structured flow of information within various sectors of society. Researchers, policymakers, and professionals often rely on these sources for accurate, reliable, and systematically organized information in their respective fields.

1.3.2.2 Informal Non-documentary Sources:

Informal non-documentary sources of information are typically unstructured and personal channels through which knowledge is conveyed. These sources provide insights, perspectives, and experiential information in a less formalized manner. Here are examples of informal non-documentary sources:

• Oral Histories: Personal accounts, stories, and narratives conveyed through spoken words, capturing firsthand experiences and perspectives.
• Interviews: Conversations with individuals to gather information, opinions, or expert insights. Interviews can be unstructured or loosely organized, allowing for more open-ended responses.
• Artifacts and Objects: Physical items, relics, or objects from the past that hold cultural, historical, or symbolic significance, providing tangible evidence of human activities.
• Observations: Systematic or casual observations of events, behaviors, or phenomena. This method is often used in social sciences and anthropology to understand human interactions.
• Audiovisual Recordings: Recordings in audio or video format capturing events, interviews, performances, or visual and auditory aspects of a subject. These recordings may not follow a formal script or structure.
• Sensory Data: Information gathered through the senses, such as taste, touch, smell, and sound. Sensory data provides experiential insights into cultural practices, environments, and events.
• Personal Narratives: Informal accounts and stories individuals share about their experiences, opinions, and observations.
• Community Dialogues: Informal discussions and conversations within communities, providing insights into local perspectives, traditions, and issues.
• Social Media Content: Posts, comments, and discussions on social media platforms that reflect personal opinions, experiences, and reactions.
• Informal Conversations: Everyday discussions and dialogues between individuals that convey informal knowledge, opinions, and anecdotes.

These examples highlight informal non-documentary sources’ personal, experiential, and unstructured nature, often capturing a more nuanced and subjective understanding of events and phenomena. Researchers often use a combination of formal and informal sources to gain a comprehensive view of a subject.

Conclusions: Sources of information are the diverse channels through which knowledge is conveyed, preserved, and shared. These sources are crucial in shaping our understanding of the world, from traditional written documents to oral histories, interviews, artifacts, and digital platforms. Formal non-documentary sources, such as official proceedings, databases, and institutional reports, provide structured and organized information. In contrast, informal non-documentary sources, including personal narratives and community dialogues, offer a more subjective and experiential perspective. The evolution of technology has further expanded the landscape of information sources, introducing new formats like online databases and social media content. As researchers and scholars navigate this rich tapestry of information, the critical evaluation of credibility, relevance, and bias remains paramount. Ultimately, a holistic approach incorporating various sources contributes to a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the complex tapestry of human knowledge and experience.

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Original Reference Article:

• Varshney, A. (2011). Overlapping in secondary sources of Information in Social Science 1995 2000 : An Evaluative study. p. 288p. Retrieved from: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/40587